Title of Essay

“The nations ‘remain on the sidelines’ (R. N. Whybray, Isaiah 40-66, 32) in the Writing Prophets’ view of the future.” Discuss this assertion in relation to the prophecies of Isaiah, Amos and Zechariah.

Commentary:

I had a few options to pursue in the “Writing Prophets” and chose the one that I actually thought would be the hardest. The others appeared to me to be simpler – though in hindsight, proving the Messiah in the prophets without reference to the New Testament was going to be interesting for those who chose that topic I think.

I have to say, that I loved this assignment. It was tough and I made a mistake in not engaging more in scripture and exegesis which cost me a High Distinction, but I am satisfied with my overall mark for this one.

Ultimately, the result was a Distinction: 82%.

The nations “remain on the sidelines”[1] in the Writing Prophets’ view of the future.  Analysis in relation to Isaiah, Amos and Zechariah.

Abstract

Whybray asserts that Deutero-Isaiah crafted his theology around the nationalistic sentiments of exiled Israel and Judah.  This fits with his view of Deutero-Isaiah dating to the exile and Trito-Isaiah dating post exile based on the theories of Doederlein and Duhm.  It allows Whybray to reposition Deutero-Isaiah as a comforting text supporting Israel’s view of nationalism and primacy among the nations.  Even among those scholars who also subscribe to the Doederlein and Duhm division of Isaiah, there is no universal support for Whybray’s position.  Many scholars refute Whybray’s assertion of a nationalistic sidelining of the nations and hold a universalist position of redemption of the nations with some arguing for a passive witness of Israel as the basis of salvation and others for an active proselytising of the nations.  The structure of Isaiah suggests in fact, a unified, developing message of redemption out of the judgement of Israel AND the nations that builds throughout the prophecy and arguably reaches a climax in the chapters attributed to Deutero- and Trito- Isaiah. Amos too reflects the overall universalist flavour of the prophets.  Even accepting the date of Trito-Isaiah to the post-exilic period, it is difficult to sustain Whybray’s argument that Trito-Isaiah is a reinterpretation of the message that caters to a nationalistic sentiment of the returnees.  Zechariah as at least mostly post-exilic in date, is reflective of the message of universal redemption for all nations.  This calls into question the concept that Trito-Isaiah would be so reinterpreted, given Zechariah’s already strong universalist flavour. Whybray does not accept either Deutero- or Trito-Isaiah as true prophetic writing but rather as providing theological support for the nationalist sentiment of Israel in exile and later as returnees.  This position is not sustainable in light of Isaiah’s message in the passages commonly attributed to Deutero-Isaiah, the support of the unified Isaiah structure and developing theme which is in turn supported by Amos and Zechariah.

Introduction

RN Whybray asserts in his book, “The New Century Bible Commentary: Isaiah 40-66” that “the nations are depicted by the prophet in a number of somewhat different roles… rarely in the forefront of Deutero-Isaiah’s thought, which is centred entirely on what Yahweh will do for Israel.  The rest of humanity… remain on the sidelines.”[2]  To properly engage with Isaiah, on the subject of the nations, it is important to understand the flow of Isaiah’s prophecy across the entirety of the book rather than from the potentially limiting view forced by the imposition of JC Doederlein and B Duhm’s theories of an exilic “Deutero-Isaiah” and post-exilic “Trito-Isaiah”[3].  The role of the nations and their conversion to full participation in the worship of Yahweh can be established by a critical examination of Isaiah, both in Isaiah 40-55 and in its unified context, supported by the prophecies of Zechariah and Amos.  Far from being relegated to the sidelines, these prophets appear to place the nations in a key role in the redemptive work of Yahweh.  A universalist reading of the prophecy appears indicated by the unified Isaiah, the interpretation of a proposed Deutero-Isaiah and the writings of other prophets such.as Zechariah and Amos.

Whybray’s Position sidelining “the Nations

Considering Whybray’s position on “the Nations”, it is important to understand his background argument.  Whybray subscribes to Doederlein’s “two Isaiahs” theory[4], dating the prophecy contained in chapters 40 to 55 as a second prophecy between 550 and 538BC coincident with the rise of Cyrus and the conquest of Babylon and during the exile.[5]  Whybray adduces some evidence for Doederlein’s Deutero-Isaiah[6], and Duhm’s proposition of a third division (Trito-Isaiah) (ch. 55-66)[7].  The theory sidelining “the Nations” could be considered a theory informed by Doederlein’s and Duhm propositions however, for the purposes of this examination, it will be treated as a separate and distinct proposition.  Therefore, in examining Whybray’s position regarding “the Nations” it is not necessary to deconstruct Doederlein, Duhm and Whybray’s Deutero/Trito-Isaiah theory.  The theory is clearly a backdrop to the question of “the Nations” in the text.  

Whybray’s placement of “Deutero-Isaiah” in the middle 6^th Century BC and the exile, repositions the message of Isaiah 40-66 as a comforting nationalist text to the captive exiles in Babylon.[8]  He asserts a position that the traditional, conservative Christian placement of Israel as missionaries to “the Nations” is unsupportable and that the nations are destined to become Israel’s “captives, supplicants and slaves”, that are not in the “forefront of Deutero-Isaiah’s thought” which is centred on Israel in a nationalist prophecy.[9]  He asserts that Deutero-Isaiah is not eschatological and that the prophecy promises unfailing happiness and good fortune from Yahweh in the immediate future.[10]  Given that this paradisical picture did not eventuate, Whybray asserts that chapters 56-66 were compiled by disciples of Deutero-Isaiah to reinterpret his teachings to the needs of the returnees, post-exile.[11]  The potential implication and ultimate assertion of Whybray’s views therefore is that Deutero-Isaiah was not a “true prophet” in that his prophecy of the blessings of Yahweh did not immediately eventuate and needed to be reinterpreted.[12]  Whybray claims that Deutero-Isaiah spoke theological truth whilst he was also a false prophet playing to the Israel-centric, nationalistic sentiment of the people in exile.[13]  Norman Snaith[14] and P A H De Boer[15] both had, decades previous to Whybray, argued for this position, asserting that “second Isaiah’s only purpose is to proclaim deliverance for the Judean people… Foreign nations are but mentioned as people to be conquered… as the instrument of Yhwh to deliver his people; or… to be witness of Yhwh’s glory.”  Antoon Schoors also argues that “there is some universalism in [Isaiah’s prophecies]… [in that] Yahweh is … the creator of the… nations… but there is no expectation of salvation on behalf of the Gentiles…. Salvation… is meant only for Israel.”[16]

The Countervailing Opinion

“The Nations” in Scripture

That the nations merely sit on the sidelines of God’s purpose is manifestly false, easily being demonstrated from Scripture more broadly, in that the nations are part of God’s redemptive work from post flood times (Gen 10-11) through to the healing of the nations in Revelations 22:1-2.[17]  Christopher Wright[18] speaks of the nations as appearing in the grand narrative of Scripture which is in stark contrast to Whybray’s “sidelines”[19] perspective of the nations.  Both Wright and Whybray agree on and separately point to the nations as both the instruments of God’s judgments on Israel (and each other) and as the recipients of God’s judgments at the hands of Israel.[20] 

Deutero-Isaiah on the Nations

Wright asserts the eschatological vision of the nations throughout the unity of Isaiah’s prophecy, from Isaiah 2 through to the climax of Isaiah 66:18-23, “… the time is coming to gather all nations and tongues… [to] see my glory… and they shall bring all your brothers from all the nations…”.[21]  Whybray’s assertions with regard to the “sidelining of” the nations appear to be limited to his view of Deutero-Isaiah’s prophecy.  Therefore, to establish a counter position, an examination of Isaiah 40-55 is required. The scholarly dispute exemplified by Whybray’s position against so-called conservative Christian positions around the placement of the nations, is discussed by Anthony Gelston (quoted in Wright[22]).  Gelston argues that there are three strands in Deutero-Isaiah:  the sovereignty of Yahweh, the expectation of the Nations recognising this, and the offer of salvation to the Nations. [23]   Whilst Gelston argues in favour of “Deutero-Isaiah”,[24] he does not hold to the nationalist view of Whybray, arguing instead for universalism, the theory that whilst Israel are God’s chosen people, all nations have access to salvation in Yahweh’s redemptive purpose.[25]  Frederik Poulsen presents an eschatological view of Isaiah 40-55 as the “salvific plan of God… oriented towards eschatological salvation” although focussing on “Yahweh’s return to Zion, the return… of the Diaspora… as part of the restoration and glorification of a future Jerusalem.”[26]  Whybray’s views are challenged however, even among some scholars who share his view of two or three authors (or more[27]) for the book of Isaiah.  He is, on the other hand, supported by Snaith[28] who argues that Deutero-Isaiah is “essentially nationalistic in attitude”, asserting that “any place which the heathen have in the new order is entirely and debasingly subservient.”   On the contrary, the unity of Israel and the nations under the rulership of the Chosen Servant is quite well established in the writings attributed to Deutero-Isaiah (Isa 42:1; the new Exodus of ch. 49-55; the grand future for Israel with the Nations in ch. 60-66).

The Blessing of the Nations

Universalism versus Nationalism; Israel’s Centripetal versus Centrifugal Role

Gordon Fee and Douglas Stuart[29] enumerate unifying themes in Isaiah’s story, as do LaSor et al[30].  Israel’s centrality to the story is clear (e.g. Isa 6:13)[31], in particular Yahweh’s relationship with Israel (the “vineyard” of Isa 5 – particularly v7), but the climax of the story is redemption of Israel and the nations by a servant (e.g. Isa 43 cf. 53:4)[32].  Walter Kaiser asserts that “salvation [was always intended] for all peoples” and that it was never intended to be limited to an exclusive group.[33]  Dwight Van Winkle[34] seeks to unify the tension between universalism and nationalism in Isaiah observing that “the salvation of the nations does not preclude their submission to Israel.”  This position is supported by Snaith as noted previously.[35] 

Norman Gottwald[36] and John Oswalt[37] assert that Israel’s witness to the nations is not one of actively proselytising or evangelising but is rather as a passive witness.    As Wright observes, the Nations had been witnesses “of the great sweep of Old Testament history” (Ex 15:14-16).[38] Walter Kaiser disagrees, asserting an active role.[39]  Walter Vogels discusses this “centripetal” vs “centrifugal” universalist tension describing varying positions as to whether the nations are either drawn by Israel’s witness or proselytised by them.[40]   Gelston[41] quotes Van Winkle[42] who places Israel as the active agent of the Nations’ salvation (Isa 43:4).  This aligns with Yahweh’s proclamation in Genesis 22:18 “… in your offspring shall all the nations of the earth be blessed.”  The weight of scripture and in particular Deutero-Isaiah appears to support a more active agency of Israel in mediating for the nations (Isa 55:3-4, leader and commander does not suggest a passive role here), noting that ultimately, it is Yahweh who draws the nations to Israel (Isa 25:6).  The participation of the nations is not in doubt and even their role as equal[43] (Isa 25:9) and eager[44] (Isa 42:1-4) participants in the worship of Yahweh appears irrefutable.[45]

Starting With Judah and Jerusalem

Christopher Begg in an essay in “Worship and the Hebrew Bible”[46] develops a structure for Isaiah that supports and develops the idea of the Nations’ worship of Yahweh.  In his structure, chapters 1-12 focus on Judah and Jerusalem but clearly reference the Nations in chapter 2:2-4 (cf. Mic 4:1-3).  The text does not explicitly rule out or positively imply worship of other deities by the Nations.[47]  Fee and Stuart make a case that Chapter 2:1-4 is evidence for Yahweh’s “commitment to redeem his creation” linking with Abraham’s covenant (Gen 22:18).  In chapter 12:4 Israel proclaims the deeds of Yahweh among the Nations.[48] 

Oracle against the Nations

Chapters 13-27 in Begg’s structure, shift attention to the nations, with Chapter 18:7 as an oracle relating to Cush bringing tribute to Yahweh.[49]  The section highlights the varying roles of the nations.  Fee and Stuart note oracles against Babylon and Assyria (ch. 13-14:27), Philistia, Moab, Damascus (ch. 14:28-17:14), Cush and Egypt (ch. 18-20:6), Babylon (again) and her allies (ch. 21:1-23:19) and the distress of the Nations followed by Feasting on the Holy Mountain (ch. 24:1-27:13).[50]  The reversal of Egypt’s fortunes is a highlight (ch. 19:19-22).  Judah doesn’t go to Egypt for deliverance, instead Egypt comes to Yahweh for deliverance.[51]  Both Egypt and Assyria instead of making a pilgrimage to Jerusalem to worship, are permitted to do so in their own countries.[52]  More important is the blessing Yahweh brings to both Egypt and Assyria (ch. 19:24-25) with other nations gifted Israelite experiences and prerogatives (e.g. “my people”, “the work of my hands” and “my inheritance” in v25).[53] 

These first two sections focus on positioning both Israel and the Nations in the prophecy.

The New Exodus and Setting up Chapters 40-55

Chapters 28-39 in Begg’s structure, return the focus to Israel, Judah and Jerusalem.[54]  Fee and Stuart show Hezekiah’s crisis of trust and the focus of the two oracles in ch. 34:1-35:10 on the Nations and Zion’s future.[55]  Begg highlights the use of Assyria as the instrument of God’s judgment on Israel (ch. 36:10 cf. v7).[56]  Chapter 35’s announcement of the new exodus is a precursor to the “comfort” of Chapters 40-55.[57]  This section sets up and flows into the next, so-called “Deutero-Isaiah” section, appearing to give lie to the proposed different authorship by unifying the thoughts between the two supposed sections.

The Nations coming Worship of Yahweh

Begg’s next section encompasses chapters 40-55 and discusses the Nations’ coming worship of Yahweh.[58]  Chapter 40:1-11 links to the promised new exodus of Chapter 35.[59]  It seems difficult to sideline the Nations given chapter 42:1, where the Servant brings “justice to the nations”.  Gelston notes that whilst the deliverance of the Jews from Exile is a major element of this section, another purpose is to proclaim the sovereignty of Yahweh extinguishing any other gods (eg Marduk).[60]  Gelston highlights Isaiah’s message of the Glory of Yahweh being revealed to all humanity (ch. 40:3-5)[61].  Van Winkle identifies three oracles in this section specifically relating to the Nations[62].  Isaiah 51:4-6 “envisages the salvation of the nations”; Isaiah 49:22-23 “expects their submission to Israel” and Isaiah 42:5-9 “commissions Israel to become an agent of salvation for the nations”.[63]  Wright[64] underpins Begg’s structure for chapters 40-55: all flesh will see the glory of Yahweh (ch. 40:5) with justice and law being delivered to them (ch. 42:1-4); all nations will be summoned to sing praise (ch. 42:10-12) and will respond to their redemption (ch. 45:6, 14), ultimately participate in salvation with Israel (ch.45) and convert from the worship of false gods (ch. 45:22-25); finally, through the mediation of a “new David”, nations unknown to Israel will respond to Yahweh (ch. 55:3-5).[65]  In the face of such evidence for the inclusion of the nations throughout “Deutero-Isaiah” it is difficult to sustain Whybray’s point of view of the sidelining of the nations in the prophecy.

Future Worship by the Foreigner

Begg’s next section, being chapters 56-66, focus on the future worship of the nations (ch. 56:3).[66]  Fee and Stuart note the first few chapters of this section harmonise with the beginning themes of Isaiah, salvation and covenant keeping.[67]  Begg speaks to the homage of the Nations to Jerusalem (ch. 60:1-22); this homage is to Yahweh (v6 “… the praises of Yahweh”).  The language of chapter 63:1-6 is eschatological, supported by the new heavens and new earth (Isaiah 65:17-66:24).[68]  It references the oracle regarding the distress of nations and feasting on Yahweh’s Holy Mountain (ch. 24:1- 27:13)

Isaiah and the Nations

Isaiah is a unified book, despite the clear change of “tempo” and language in chapter 40 and arguably again in Chapter 56.  William Dumbrell argues “one overarching theme can be seen to effectively unite the whole: Yahweh’s interest in and devotion to the city of Jerusalem.”[69]  Dumbrell notes that the prophecy has Jerusalem as its dominating emphasis tying the book together.[70]  He notes that “New Jerusalem [is] God’s holy mountain to which the world will go up in a pilgrimage to worship.”[71]  Vogel’s discussion of centripetal vs centrifugal universalism[72] appears somewhat immaterial though it cannot be disregarded entirely.  Whether Israel actively mediates for the nations or not, the nations are actively engaged in coming to Jerusalem.  The role played by the Nations in Deutero-Isaiah is somewhat ambiguous, being described as a ransom (ch. 43:3-4) coming in chains (ch. 45:14) and licking the dust from Israel’s feet (ch. 49:23) but also are called to turn and be saved (ch. 45:22-23) and under the light of “the servant” (ch. 42:6; 49:6) and to whom his salvation is extended (ch. 42:4,23: 49:6; 51:4-6).    Disregarding the authorship and timing of the various sections of the book, the central theme of the prophecy integrates the nations into worship at Jerusalem whether they are actively sought by Israel in response to the election of Israel in Abraham (Gen 22:18) or are drawn by Israel’s witness (as in Deut 4:6).

Amos – A Message of Social Justice for all of Humanity

Isaiah asserted the centrality of Jerusalem in Yahweh’s thinking (Isa 2:2-3; 25:6) and Israel seems have viewed that centrality as their salvation.  Whybray seems to believe that Deutero-Isaiah pursued this nationalist sentiment[73].  Prophesying concurrently[74] with the 8^th century “Proto-Isaiah”[75], Amos’ message was rejected by the priests in the north (Amos 7:12).[76]  Bernard Thorogood shows Amos disregarding the apparent security of the land and the expanding borders and warning Israel that other nations posed great danger.[77]  The prosperity of Israel led to complacency and covenant unfaithfulness, leading to doom at the hands of the nations.[78]  This covenant unfaithfulness was marked by a lack of social justice and Yahweh abhorred the self sufficiency and pride of “Jacob” (ch. 6:1-8).[79]  The Nations would  not go unpunished as Yahweh roars judgement from Jerusalem (ch. 1:3, 6, 9, 11, 13).[80]  Given that these nations were not Yahwist, and were being held to account, how much more is Israel subject to judgement?[81]  The consistent use of Yahweh’s name throughout Amos, is a reminder of their covenant relationship, incidentally reminding them of their place among the nations.[82]

Israel was not in a protected category (despite ch. 3:2).  They had failed to keep covenant and that meant that their privileged position was revoked (ch. 3:1-15), their worship was pointless (ch. 4), their religion was false security (ch. 5), their material wealth, priests and kings could not save them (ch. 6-7) and their destruction was certain (ch. 8-9).[83]  In fact, the message of hope in chapter 9 (vv 11-15) includes those nations called by Yahweh’s name, explicitly expanding redemption and hope to the Nations.[84]

Amos’ prophecy was unpalatable to the northern kingdom because he spoke of the judgement of Israel by Yahweh utilising the nations, how much more when he spoke of the expansion of Yahweh’s blessing to the nations (ch. 7:10-17 cf. ch. 9:11-15).[85]  This demonstrates the nationalistic sentiment of the nation as it headed towards the captivity.  Amos reminded them that Yahweh “forms the mountains… creates the wind and, declares to humanity” his thoughts (Amos 4:13); he creates the stars and orders the world (ch. 5:8); other nations have enjoyed the works of Yahweh (ch. 9:7) and the nations share in the redemptive opportunity (ch. 9:13-15).  Israel was not ready to hear this in their prosperity.

Post-Exilic Prophecy – Zechariah

Whybray asserts Isaiah 56-66 was compiled and reinterpreted to meet the needs of a post-exilic nation.[86]  This third section of Isaiah if post-exilic, accords with Zechariah in its universalist approach to the nations. “Trito-Isaiah” hardly needed reinterpretation to meet the needs of the returnees to offer false hope.  The themes of Zechariah and this last part of Isaiah have an eschatological application,[87] preoccupied with present failure and future glory.[88]  The themes of judgement for Israel’s sins (Zech.5:1-4, 5-11; 7:4-14 cf. Isa 1-6; 7-8; 46:1-48:22; 52:13-53:12), judgements on the nations for their sins (Zech.1:18-21; 12:1-3a; 14:1-2 cf. Isa 13-27; 34-39:8; 65:1-16), and a glorious future for the redeemed and purified people of God appear as they do in Isaiah (Zech.2:4-5; 3:1-10; 4:1-14; 9:1-11:17; 12:3b-9; 14:3-21 cf. Isa 9-12; 40:20-41:29; 42:1-44:23; 49-52:12; 54:1-55:13; 60:1-64:12; 65:17-66:24).[89]  Isaiah 56-66 did not need reinterpretation to meet the nationalist needs of the post exilic Jews or to accord with the writings of other prophets post-exile. 

As in Isaiah, the fate of the Nations integrates with the intermediary character of Israel (Zech.8:23 cf. Deut 4:6 and Isa 66:18-21).[90]  R. Reed Lessing highlights Moses in Deuteronomy, “Surely this nation is a wise and understanding people” (Deut 4:6) as the reason that the Nations are drawn to Israel in Zechariah 8:23 “ten men from the nations of every tongue shall take hold of the robe of a Jew, saying ‘let us go with you, for we have heard that God is with you’”.  As such, Whybray’s assertion of a “sidelined” nations is inconsistent with the broader weight of prophecy and potentially Zechariah evidences a centrifugal role for Israel.

Themes of the Writing Prophets

Eschatology and the Participation of all Nations in End Times

Eschatology is a major theme in many of the Writing Prophets.  Isaiah, Amos and Zechariah have a message that was prophetically eschatological (in Isaiah 44:28 for example, Cyrus or Israel herself may have been the prophesied “servant”[91]), but also had an apocalyptic eschatological message (Acts 8:35).[92]  The Judahites, Israelites and Jews were confronted with a prophetic eschatology within their own time whereas Christians today may discern an apocalyptic eschatology from these same writings (eg Isa 25:8 cf. 1 Cor 15:54).[93]  For example, Zechariah predicted Yahweh bringing his kingdom to earth after winning the final battle (ch. 14:1-11).  Prophetic writings have application to the historical peoples of God and to Christians today. Christians, drawn from all nations, despite Whybray’s assertions to the contrary, are not sidelined. 

Messiah for all nations

Messiah, though not specifically named as such, is a key theme of the writing prophets (Luke 4:21 cf. Isa 61:1-2; 42:7; 58:6; 49:8).[94]  Jesus is Messiah to all nations (Jn 1:29, 3:16; Matt 4:13-16; Luke 1:32-33).  Jesus as the Servant referenced in Isa 52:13-53:12, is the means of the redemption of Israel AND the nations (Mk 10:45; Acts 8:30-35; 1 Pet 2:21-25)[95].  If the Nations are excluded from redemption in the Chosen Servant, Messiah, then the Christian hope must be dead and lost.  For Christianity’s hope in the Messiah to be effective, the message of Isaiah (however divided the prophecy might be), must incorporate a universal application including redemption of the Nations.  The Nations are not mere spectators of the redemptive work of Yahweh, rather he has brought them out of the stalls and onto the stage, joining the original cast and enlarging it for the final drama.[96]  They are included in the identity of Israel.[97]

Conclusion

Whybray seems to force on Deutero-Isaiah a nationalist sentiment that is not supported by the text.  A careful study of Isaiah, Amos and Zechariah demonstrates that the nations are not sidelined in the writing prophets generally.    A close examination of “Deutero-Isaiah” together with scholars who are reasonably aligned with Whybray, Doederlein and Duhm, generally contradicts Whybray’s asserted sidelining of the nations.  The prophecy whether constrained to Deutero-Isaiah or more generally is universal in its treatment of Israel and the Nations.  The role of Israel in the redemption of the nations may be as a passive witness or as active proselytes but it cannot be denied that the Nations are involved in the worship of Yahweh as eager, equal participants.  The hope of Christianity today is bound up in this universalist interpretation of Isaiah supported by Amos and Zechariah.

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[1] R. N. Whybray, Isaiah 40-66: Based on the Revised Standard Version, New Century Bible (Mich. U.S: Eerdmans, 1981), 32.

[2] Whybray, Isaiah 40-66, 31–32.

[3] Whybray, Isaiah 40-66, 20.

[4] Whybray, Isaiah 40-66, 20.

[5] Whybray, Isaiah 40-66, 23.

[6] Whybray, Isaiah 40-66, 25–29.

[7] Whybray, Isaiah 40-66, 38–43.

[8] Whybray, Isaiah 40-66, 24, 30.

[9] Whybray, Isaiah 40-66, 31–32.

[10] Whybray, Isaiah 40-66, 30–32.

[11] Whybray, Isaiah 40-66, 34.

[12] Whybray, Isaiah 40-66, 37.

[13] Whybray, Isaiah 40-66, 38.

[14] Norman H Snaith, The Servant of the Lord in Deutero-Isaiah: Studies in Old Testament Prophecy (Edinburgh, UK: T&T Clark, 1950), 191.

[15] P. A. H. de Boer, Second Isaiah’s Message, First Edition. (Netherlands: Leiden: EJ Brill, 1956), 90.

[16] Antoon Schoors, “I Am God Your Saviour: A Form-Critical Study of the Main Genres in Is. XL-LV,” VTSup.24 (1973): 302.

[17] Christopher J. H. Wright, The Mission of God: Unlocking the Bible’s Grand Narrative (Westmont, United States: InterVarsity Press, 2006), 489, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/dtl/detail.action?docID=2033595.

[18] Wright, The Mission of God, 489–90.

[19] Whybray, Isaiah 40-66, 32.

[20] Whybray, Isaiah 40-66, 31; Wright, The Mission of God, 492.

[21] Wright, The Mission of God, 520.

[22] Wright, The Mission of God, 521.

[23] A. Gelston, “Universalism in Second Isaiah,” The Journal of Theological Studies 43.2 (1992): 396, http://www.jstor.org.theoref.idm.oclc.org/stable/23963896.

[24] Gelston, “Universalism,” 378.

[25] Gelston, “Universalism,” 379.

[26] Frederik Poulsen, God, His Servant, and the Nations in Isaiah 42:1-9 : Biblical Theological Reflections after Brevard S. Childs and Hans Hübner (Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck, 2014), 79, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/dtl/detail.action?docID=3033424 particularly footnote 14.

[27] William Sanford LaSor, David Allan Hubbard, and Frederic Wm. Bush, Old Testament Survey: The Message, Form and Background of the Old Testament, 2nd Edition. (Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1996), 281.

[28] Snaith, The Servant of the Lord in Deutero-Isaiah, 191.

[29] Gordon D Fee and Douglas Stuart, How to Read the Bible Book by Book: A Guided Tour (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan, 2002), 177.

[30] LaSor, Hubbard, and Bush, Old Testament Survey, 286.

[31] LaSor, Hubbard, and Bush, Old Testament Survey, 278.

[32] LaSor, Hubbard, and Bush, Old Testament Survey, 306, 312.

[33] Walter C. Kaiser, Jr, Mission in the Old Testament: Israel as a Light to the Nations, 2nd Edition. (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker Book House, 2012), xiv.

[34] D. W. Van Winkle, “The Relationship of the Nations to Yahweh and to Israel in Isaiah XL-LV,” Vetus Testamentum 35.4 (1985): 457, https://doi.org/10.2307/1517760, http://www.jstor.org.theoref.idm.oclc.org/stable/1517760.

[35] Snaith, The Servant of the Lord in Deutero-Isaiah, 191.

[36] Norman Gottwald, All the Kingdoms of the Earth: Israelite Prophecy and International Relations in the Ancient Near East (New York, NY: Harper and Row, 1964), 344.

[37] John N. Oswalt, “The Mission of Israel to the Nations,” Through No Fault of Their Own? The Fate of Those Who Have Never Heard (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker Books, 1991), 95.

[38] Wright, The Mission of God, 467–68.

[39] Kaiser, Jr, Mission in the Old Testament: Israel as a Light to the Nations, 63, 74.

[40] Walter Vogel, “Covenant and Universalism: Guide for a Missionary Reading of the Old Testament,” Zeitschrift Für Missionswissenschaft Und Religionswissenschaft.57 (1973): 31.

[41] Gelston, “Universalism,” 380.

[42] Van Winkle, “The Relationship of the Nations,” 447.

[43] M. Patrick Graham et al., Worship and the Hebrew Bible: Essays in Honor of John T. Willis (London, UK: Bloomsbury Publishing Plc, 2009), 55, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/dtl/detail.action?docID=435974.

[44] Walter Brueggemann and Brevard S. Childs, Old Testament Theology: Canon or Testimony (Minneapolis, USA: Fortress Press, 2023), 501–2.

[45] Wright, The Mission of God, 486.

[46] Graham et al., Worship and the Hebrew Bible, 37.

[47] Graham et al., Worship and the Hebrew Bible, 38.

[48] Graham et al., Worship and the Hebrew Bible, 39.

[49] Graham et al., Worship and the Hebrew Bible, 40.

[50] Fee and Stuart, How to Read the Bible, 179–80.

[51] Fee and Stuart, How to Read the Bible, 180.

[52] Graham et al., Worship and the Hebrew Bible, 42.

[53] Graham et al., Worship and the Hebrew Bible, 42.

[54] Graham et al., Worship and the Hebrew Bible, 45.

[55] Fee and Stuart, How to Read the Bible, 181.

[56] Graham et al., Worship and the Hebrew Bible, 45.

[57] Fee and Stuart, How to Read the Bible, 181.

[58] Graham et al., Worship and the Hebrew Bible, 45.

[59] Fee and Stuart, How to Read the Bible, 182.

[60] Gelston, “Universalism,” 382.

[61] Gelston, “Universalism,” 382.

[62] Van Winkle, “The Relationship of the Nations,” 447.

[63] Van Winkle, “The Relationship of the Nations,” 447.

[64] Wright, The Mission of God, 522–23.

[65] Wright, The Mission of God, 522–23.

[66] Graham et al., Worship and the Hebrew Bible, 48–49.

[67] Fee and Stuart, How to Read the Bible, 184.

[68] Fee and Stuart, How to Read the Bible, 185; William J. Dumbrell, The Faith of Israel: A Theological Survey of the Old Testament, 2nd Edition. (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker Academic, 2002), 108.

[69] Dumbrell, The Faith of Israel, 108.

[70] Dumbrell, The Faith of Israel, 108.

[71] Dumbrell, The Faith of Israel, 108.

[72] Vogel, “Covenant and Universalism,” 31.

[73] Whybray, Isaiah 40-66, 30.

[74] Bernard Thorogood, A Guide to the Study of Amos: With Theme Discussions on Judgement, Social Justice, Priest and Prophet (London, England: United Society for Christian Literature, 1971), 6.

[75] Accepting the proto/deutero argument for the moment

[76] LaSor, Hubbard, and Bush, Old Testament Survey, 243.

[77] Thorogood, Study of Amos, 3.

[78] Fee and Stuart, How to Read the Bible, 222.

[79] LaSor, Hubbard, and Bush, Old Testament Survey, 245.

[80] LaSor, Hubbard, and Bush, Old Testament Survey, 247; Fee and Stuart, How to Read the Bible, 225; Dumbrell, The Faith of Israel, 191.

[81] LaSor, Hubbard, and Bush, Old Testament Survey, 247.

[82] LaSor, Hubbard, and Bush, Old Testament Survey, 252.

[83] Fee and Stuart, How to Read the Bible, 225–27.

[84] Fee and Stuart, How to Read the Bible, 227; LaSor, Hubbard, and Bush, Old Testament Survey, 251, 253; Dumbrell, The Faith of Israel, 198–99; Thorogood seems to dissent, limiting this passage to the named nations only Thorogood, Study of Amos, 109.

[85] LaSor, Hubbard, and Bush, Old Testament Survey, 252.

[86] Whybray, Isaiah 40-66, 34, 196.

[87] Andrew E. Hill and John H. Walton, A Survey of the Old Testament, 3rd Edition. (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan, 2009), 529, 695; LaSor, Hubbard, and Bush, Old Testament Survey, 300–301, 412.

[88] Fee and Stuart, How to Read the Bible, 184, 257.

[89] Fee and Stuart, How to Read the Bible, 257: Nb the specific link of fasting (Isa 56-59:21 and Zech 7:1-8:23).

[90] Fee and Stuart, How to Read the Bible, 257; R. Reed Lessing, Zechariah (St. Louis, MO, US: Concordia Publishing House, 2021), 320.

[91] LaSor, Hubbard, and Bush, Old Testament Survey, 310.

[92] LaSor, Hubbard, and Bush, Old Testament Survey, 411.

[93] Hill and Walton, A Survey of the Old Testament, 529; LaSor, Hubbard, and Bush, Old Testament Survey, 306–7.

[94] Hill and Walton, A Survey of the Old Testament, 695; LaSor, Hubbard, and Bush, Old Testament Survey, 586.

[95] Fee and Stuart, How to Read the Bible, 183.

[96] Wright, The Mission of God, 489.

[97] Wright, The Mission of God, 496.

Bibliography

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Brueggemann, Walter, and Brevard S. Childs. Old Testament Theology: Canon or Testimony. Minneapolis, USA: Fortress Press, 2023.

Dumbrell, William J. The Faith of Israel: A Theological Survey of the Old Testament. 2nd Edition. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker Academic, 2002.

Fee, Gordon D, and Douglas Stuart. How to Read the Bible Book by Book: A Guided Tour. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan, 2002.

Gelston, A. “Universalism in Second Isaiah.” The Journal of Theological Studies 43.2 (1992): 377–98. http://www.jstor.org.theoref.idm.oclc.org/stable/23963896.

Gottwald, Norman. All the Kingdoms of the Earth: Israelite Prophecy and International Relations in the Ancient Near East. New York, NY: Harper and Row, 1964.

Graham, M. Patrick, Richard R. Marrs, Steven L. McKenzie, Steven L. McKenzie, Richard R Marrs, and Professor of Hebrew Bible Steven L McKenzie. Worship and the Hebrew Bible: Essays in Honor of John T. Willis. London, UK: Bloomsbury Publishing Plc, 2009. http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/dtl/detail.action?docID=435974.

Hill, Andrew E., and John H. Walton. A Survey of the Old Testament. 3rd Edition. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan, 2009.

Kaiser, Jr, Walter C. Mission in the Old Testament: Israel as a Light to the Nations. 2nd Edition. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker Book House, 2012.

LaSor, William Sanford, David Allan Hubbard, and Frederic Wm. Bush. Old Testament Survey: The Message, Form and Background of the Old Testament. 2nd Edition. Grand Rapids, Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1996.

Lessing, R. Reed. Zechariah. St. Louis, MO, US: Concordia Publishing House, 2021.

Oswalt, John N. “The Mission of Israel to the Nations,” Through No Fault of Their Own? The Fate of Those Who Have Never Heard. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Baker Books, 1991.

Poulsen, Frederik. God, His Servant, and the Nations in Isaiah 42:1-9 : Biblical Theological Reflections after Brevard S. Childs and Hans Hübner. Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck, 2014. http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/dtl/detail.action?docID=3033424.

Schoors, Antoon. “I Am God Your Saviour: A Form-Critical Study of the Main Genres in Is. XL-LV.” VTSup 24 (1973).

Snaith, Norman H. The Servant of the Lord in Deutero-Isaiah: Studies in Old Testament Prophecy. Edinburgh, UK: T&T Clark, 1950.

Thorogood, Bernard. A Guide to the Study of Amos: With Theme Discussions on Judgement, Social Justice, Priest and Prophet. London, England: United Society for Christian Literature, 1971.

Van Winkle, D. W. “The Relationship of the Nations to Yahweh and to Israel in Isaiah XL-LV.” Vetus Testamentum 35.4 (1985): 446–58. https://doi.org/10.2307/1517760, http://www.jstor.org.theoref.idm.oclc.org/stable/1517760.

Vogel, Walter. “Covenant and Universalism: Guide for a Missionary Reading of the Old Testament.” Zeitschrift Für Missionswissenschaft Und Religionswissenschaft 57 (1973).

Whybray, R. N. Isaiah 40-66: Based on the Revised Standard Version. New Century Bible. Mich. U.S: Eerdmans, 1981.

Wright, Christopher J. H. The Mission of God: Unlocking the Bible’s Grand Narrative. Westmont, United States: InterVarsity Press, 2006. http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/dtl/detail.action?docID=2033595.